EGYPTIAN PYRAMIDS

A pictorial Guide for younger viewers to demonstrate why the Ancient Egyptians built their pyramids. This is the tomb of Mereruka who died around 2323 BC. He was buried in a type of tomb known as a Mastaba - a name that comes from the fact that it looks like a bench and ‘Mastaba’ means ‘bench’ in Arabic. This was a traditional style of tomb for the early ancient Egyptians before they started to experiment with building pyramids. The very first pyramid in Egypt was built for King Zoser (Djoser) around 2650 BC. It is known as a Step-Pyramid as it does not have a true pyramid shape but rises to the top in five giant steps (see the people to the left of the pyramid to give you an idea of how large it is). The step pyramid is basically five Mastabas - one on top of the other, with each one getting smaller as you near the top. And this is exactly how the whole idea for a pyramid came about in the first place. Look closely at Zoser’s Step-Pyramid. Can you see the original Mastaba that was built for the king in the lower-right section of the pyramid? The king’s architects first extended this original Mastaba, and then placed another on top - and then another. By building a monument shaped like a pyramid the Egyptians would have believed that they were re-creating the shape of the first land that emerged from the sea at the beginning of time. This would ensure the king’s journey to the next world and a prosperous nation for everybody else. This is a close-up of Zoser’s Step-Pyramid. Here you can see the sloping wall of the original Mastaba. To the right of this is another extension before all of it was included in the building of the pyramid. When it was completed the pyramid would have been covered with fine limestone sheets and none of this earlier work would have been visible. The first attempt to build a smooth sided pyramid - which has withstood the test of time - was by King Sneferu (2613-2589 BC) at Dahshur, just to the south of the main pyramids at Giza. It is known as the Bent-Pyramid due to the way the architects changed the angles of the sides halfway through. No one really knows the reason for this but one suggestion is that a nearby pyramid at Meidum, which was also being built with smooth sides, collapsed while the Bent-Pyramid was being built. This prompted the architects to realise their mistake and change the angle of the sides. Had the original angle been completed it would have surely collapsed at some point. Just next to the Bent-Pyramid at Dahshur is the Red-Pyramid built by the same king - King Sneferu. Most people think he built this pyramid after the failures of the Bent-Pyramid. It is the first true pyramid with smooth sides. It is also the second largest pyramid ever built in Egypt. To the north of Dahshur is the Giza Plateau and here the three famous pyramids of Khufu, Khafre and Menkaure were built from 2589 to 2503 BC. The Pyramid of Khufu, also known as Cheops, is the largest of them all and is known as the Great-Pyramid - the only wonder of the ancient world still standing. In this photograph you see the pyramid of Khafre, the second largest at Giza - still with a tiny portion of the smooth limestone capping in place at the top (this would have once covered all the sides). At Giza you see that the pyramid was only part of a whole complex of structures which worked together. In Khafre’s case there is a unique addition - a Sphinx. Partly carved out of a natural bit of rock, this magical creature watched over Khafre’s Valley Temple. Each pyramid at Giza was connected to the Nile River by a canal. This canal ended at the King’s Valley Temple. It was in this temple that the major ceremonies at the King’s funeral took place, and it was here that prayers would be said for the dead king long after his death. This Valley Temple of Khafre is one of the world’s first examples of a building constructed with massive blocks of stone. Yet, even this early, the builders of Egypt proved themselves to be expert craftsmen and built a structure where the stones still join perfectly. In the shallow depressions on the floor would have stood statues of Khafre. From the Valley Temple a causeway led to the Pyramid. The King’s body would have been carried up this sloping ramp, and in ceremonies to remember the dead king, processions would have walked this way to the pyramid. This is the causeway of Khafre. The final part of the complex was the pyramid itself. In this case, the pyramid of Khafre still retains the original limestone cover which once covered the pyramid making them into towers of gleaming white on which the sun-god Ra must have reflected his glory. The largest of the pyramids at Giza is that of King Khufu, or Cheops (2589-2566 BC). To the right of the pyramid is a modern structure protecting a solar-boat, one of several wooden boats that were buried next to each pyramid in pits. The boats were either the boats on which the king’s body reached the pyramid, or they were there in case the king needed them in his journey through the next world. The people and camel at the bottom of this photo show the size of King Khufu’s pyramid. It stands 127 metres tall (originally 140 m) and is composed of two and a half million stone blocks averaging two tonnes in weight each. Massive ramps would have given the builders access to the the structure and many things such as burial chambers and passageways had to be built inside. The pyramid was a tomb for the king, but a king who would become a god and bring harmony to the people he left behind. Even though they did not have iron tools or modern instruments, the pyramids were constructed with amazing architectural accuracy. No other monument can inspire wonder like the pyramids, especially when you consider that they are over four and a half thousand years old. Inside Khufu’s pyramid is a passageway that leads up inside the pyramid to the king’s burial chamber. At first this passageway is confined, but it soon opens out. As you near the burial chamber inside Khufu’s pyramid, the passageway is constructed out of very large blocks of stone - and it it is very hot and stuffy inside with all the other visitors. At last, about halfway up inside the pyramid, is the burial chamber of King Khufu. There are no images on the walls and no inscriptions - only a beautifully built chamber constructed from fine granite stone. In this chamber is the sarcophagus, or coffin, of the king; also made out of granite stone. This sarcophagus is too large to have been brought into the pyramid when it was completed, so it must have been built into this chamber as the pyramid was being built. Even though the chamber had been robbed long before modern times, it is unlikely there were lots of treasures left here. Rich funeral goods, such as found in Tutankhamun’s tomb, are a trademark of much later kings.

5 things to consider before accepting a job offer

1. What will I be working on?

How many of us really read the fine print before signing on the dotted line of a job offer? Well, if you are among those who don't, here's why you must do it the next time.

When one reaches the final year, all one aspires for is a decent job -- the ultimate goal of all the years spent at college.

Most of us are willing to do anything required of us to get a good opportunity, but once it is offered we go mute and stop questioning the employers.

And being a fresher doesn't help for sure.

But, it's high time that we correct this mistake.

If you are a top talent, then, let me assure you -- you do have a say!

Here are some points, apart from the salary of course, one must consider before accepting any job offer:

2. How long will I be working?

Job description is definitely the most important point to focus on.
There are many companies out there, who just hire candidates and call them 'resources'.
The selected candidates usually undergo a training on all the aspects the company works in and then they are randomly allocated to different projects, without considering the interest and expertise of the candidate.
It is always helpful to ask the recruiter to give you an overview of the nature of the work expected of you, to save yourself from frustration later on.

2. How long will I be working?

I am sure most of us do not care much about it, but then we must care about our work hours.

If one does not prefer working in late night shifts, we must inform the recruiter before accepting the offer.
By conveying such information to employers, there is every possibility that they will fit you accordingly.
Usually in cases where one wants to pursue higher studies, one needs to plan the day accordingly.
Letting your employers know is, thus, a good step forward.

Your location is surely a vital point.
Is it all right for you to relocate to a new city?
We all might face this problem -- where we are sent to cities where we cannot adjust.
One might argue that being a fresher renders you powerless with regard to choice, but then, it is better to discuss it with your employer.
Not just that, everybody has some priorities in life and unfavourable locations can ruin their plans.
Ask yourself if you are comfortable with traveling.
Get all your location-related details right before signing your contract.

4. What kind of growth opportunities can I expect?

It might be a little early to ask, but, having a rough idea about it would certainly help to plan the future of your career.
Generally, we accept whichever job is offered to us, without really digging into the details.
However, it'll be really wise of you to gain a brief overview of the various growth prospects in the organisation and also the time between your promotions.

5. Read the contract!!!

More

Last, but certainly not the least, important point is reading the contract.
Most of the times, it is designed to be in the favour of the organisation.
We must go through it properly, keeping in mind our priorities.
We must evaluate the exit policies carefully.
A good question to ask is -- How long are we in a bond with the company?
One must not just sign a contract in the excitement of getting a job, but must evaluate all the points wisely.
Why repent later, when you have the choice of looking for an alternative opportunity in case you are not comfortable with the terms and conditions.
Follow these five simple steps and make a wise career decision!

GREAT WALL OF CHINA

The Great Wall of China

Traditionally known to the Chinese as the "Long Wall of Ten Thousand Li", the stretch of formidable defensive structures built to ward off invasion of the Celestial Empire by barbarians is most often called the "Great Wall" or the "Wall of China" by Europeans.

History of the Great Wall of China

The history of these extraordinary fortifications goes back to the Chunqiu period (722-481 B.C.) and to the Warring States period (453-221 B.C.), so-called because of the long struggle among seven rival dynasties for supreme power. The construction of certain walls can be explained by these feudal conflicts, such as the one built by the Wei in 408 B.C. to defend their kingdom against the Qin. Its vestiges, conserved in the center of China, precede by many years the walls that the Kingdoms of Qin, Zhao and Yan erected against the northern barbarians around 300 B.C.

Beginning in 220 B.C., Qin Shi Huang, the founder of the Empire of the Ten Thousand Generations, undertook to restore and link up the separate sections of the Great Wall which had been built in the 3rd century B.C., or perhaps even earlier, and which stretched from the region of the Ordos to Manchuria. Towards the west, he had the fortifications extended in the valley of the Huanghe all the way to Lanzhou. Thus was the first cohesive defense system of which significant vestiges still remain, completed, shortly before the accession of the Han dynasty (206 B.C.). During their reign the Great Wall was extended even further, and under the emperor Wudi (140-87 B.C.) it spanned approximately 3700 miles (6,000 kilometers) between Dunhuang in the west to Bohai Sea in the east. The danger of incursion along northern Chinese border by the federated tribes of Mongols, Turks and Tunguz of the Empire of the Xiongnu, the first empire of the steppes, made a defense policy more necessary than ever. Alternating military actions with intensive diplomatic efforts, this policy entailed massive relocation of Chinese peoples within the frontier zone. In 102 B.C., there were 180,000 peasant soldiers in the "command posts" of Gansu.

After the downfall of the Han dynasty (220 A.D.), the Great Wall entered its medieval phase. Construction and maintenance work were halted, only occasionally being recommenced. Under the Northern Wei, for example, a 600 mile (1,000-kilometer) section of wall was built in 423; this was added to in the 6th century, but work was suspended during the Tang period (618-907). China at that time enjoyed such great military power that the need for a defense policy was no longer felt.

It was the Ming emperors (1368-1644) who, after the long period of conflict which ended with the expulsion of the Mongols, revived the tradition begun by Qin Shi Huang. During the Ming dynasty, 3500 miles (5,650 kilometers) of crenelated wall were built. The stones used were incredibly well matched, and the wall was fortified by 25,000 towers and protected by 15,000 outposts. To defend the northern frontier, the Wall was divided into nine Zhen, which were military districts rather than simple garrisons. At strategic points , fortresses were built to defend the towns (e.g. Jinshanling for Peking), passes or fords. The passageways running along the top of the wall made it possible to move troops rapidly and, in peace time, for imperial couriers to travel. Two symbolic monuments still proudly stand at either end of the wall. These are the "First Door under Heaven" at Shanhaiguan, located at the wall's eastern end, and the "Last Door under Heaven" at Jiayuguan, which, as part of the fortress entirely restored after 1949, marks its northwestern end.
Great Wall Chairlift at Mutainyu near Beijing, originally uploaded by vipeldo.Great Wall Slide at Mutianyu near Beijing, originally uploaded by lanz.The Great Wall at Mutainyu is located in the Huairou District of Beijing. According to historical literature, this setion of the Great Wall was built under the supervision of General Xu Da of Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang in the early Ming Dynasty. Mutianyu is a favorite tourist spot given its close proximity to Beijing. You can take a chairlift up to the Great Wall then when you are finished sightseeing you can take the slide back down.The Great Wall at Badaling near Beijing Originally uploaded by kenner116.Great Wall at Badaling Originally uploaded byJack Parkinson Pics.Great Wall at Badaling

The Great Wall at Badaling can be very crowded, as seen in the above pictures, given it's proximity to Beijing. At Badaling the Great Wall is more than 23 feet ( 7 meters ) high and 16 feet ( 5 meters ) wide. Badaling was the advanced point of Juyongguan Pass in historical times with many fortresses and beacon towers built at strategic points.

The Great Wall of China from Space

Great Wall of China from Space - Look for black line that runs from upper right to lower left. NASA imageGreat Wall from Space taken January 9, 2001
The Great Wall of China was included as a World Heritage Site on the basis of Cultural Criteria I, II, III, IV and VI in 1987.
Criterion I.  The Great Wall of the Ming is, not only because of the ambitious character of the undertaking but also the perfection of its construction, an absolute masterpiece. The only work built by human hands on this planet that can be seen from the moon, the Wall constitutes, on the vast scale of a continent, a perfect example of architecture integrated into the landscape.
Criterion II.  During the Chunqiu period, the Chinese imposed their models of construction and organization of space in building the defense works along the northern frontier. The spread of Sinicism was accentuated by the population transfers necessitated by the Great Wall.
Criterion III.  That the great walls bear exceptional testimony to the civilizations of ancient China is illustrated as much by the tamped-earth sections of fortifications dating from the Western Han that are conserved in the Gansu province as by the admirable and universally acclaimed masonry of the Ming period.
Criterion IV.  This complex and diachronic cultural property is an outstanding and unique example of a military architectural ensemble which served a single strategic purpose for 2000 years, but whose construction history illustrates successive advances in defense techniques and adaptation to changing political contexts.
Criterion VI.  The Great Wall has an incomparable symbolic significance in the history of China. Its purpose was to protect China from outside aggression, but also to preserve its culture from the customs of foreign barbarians. Because its construction implied suffering, it is one of the essential references in Chinese literature, being found in works like the "Soldier's Ballad" of Tch'en Lin (c. 200 A.D.) or the poems of Tu Fu (712-770) and the popular novels of the Ming period.

Location of the Badaling section of the Great Wall

The Badaling section of the Great Wall of China is located about 36 miles ( 57 kilometers ) northwest of Beijing, China.